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Which Course, Which Course?

by John C. Norcross, Ph.D., University of Scranton

This article originally appeared in Eye on Psi Chi, Spring 1997. Reprinted by permission.

Academic advisors frequently struggle with the question of which undergraduate psychology courses their students should take when preparing for graduate school. In a world of finite credits and time, the chorus of "Which course, which course?" from both inquiring students and curriculum committees demands crisp answers. Although graduate programs will differ slightly in the courses they prefer students to have taken prior to admission, aren’t there some "core" courses that all require?

...Empirical Results. Directors of graduate programs reported their psychology admission pre-requisites by specifying a minimum number of psychology credits, specific psychology courses, an undergraduate psychology major, or some combination thereof. Ninety-one percent of the programs (1,854 of 2,023) contributed such information; we were unable to determine whether the remaining nine percent of graduate programs had no pre-requisites, or simply failed to provide the requested information.

... Overall, master’s programs and doctoral programs required very similar types of undergraduate preparation. The sole exception was that doctoral programs were more likely to require an undergraduate psychology than were master’s programs (16% vs. 11%). Approximately one-half of the graduate programs required specific psychology courses, and one-third required specific psychology courses plus a minimum number of credits in psychology. The minimum number of psychology credits averaged 16 for both master’s and doctoral programs (median and mode = 15).

...Statistics and research methods/experimental design courses were the most common [required courses in psychology]. In descending order of frequency, other commonly required courses were abnormal, personality, developmental, testing, learning, lab course, physiological, history and systems, social, cognitive, and sensation and perception. Bear in mind that these figures... do not include those graduate programs requiring a psychology major as a pre-requisite and thus probably also requiring most of the other courses listed [above]. No other psychology course was required or preferred for graduate admission by even 1% of the programs.

In sum: Graduate admission will typically require, at a minimum, the equivalent of a rigorous minor in psychology, one that certainly includes courses in statistics and experimental/research methods and one that probably includes a smattering of courses from abnormal, developmental, personality, learning, physiological, and social psychology.

... Beyond these psychology classes, what other undergraduate courses might an academic advisor recommend for graduate school preparation? Our literature review (Norcross, Sayette, & Mayne, 1996), identified the following consensual tips:

Advanced or graduate statistics course. Statistical acumen is highly regarded, especially in research oriented programs, and advanced knowledge may pave the way for funding as a graduate assistant or research assistant. A related suggestion would be to take a course specifically focused on one of the data analysis programs. Learning one of the major statistical packages — SAS, SPSS, or BMDP for example- is a definite advantage.

Computer Science Courses. Not only will these courses accustom you to the workings of computers, which are standard research fare, but they will also serve as a springboard for learning the upper-level languages used for data analysis. Computer proficiency is rated a moderately important admission variable by doctoral programs (Eddy, Lloyd, & Lubin, 1987).

A broad undergraduate education in the arts and sciences. Biological sciences, math competency, and verbal skills are highly valued (Keith-Spiegel, 1991).

Public speaking courses. If you are anxious or phobic regarding oral presentations, then by all means complete a public speaking course.

Composition and writing courses. You may well face three or four major papers each semester in graduate school. Get ready now!

Learning about psychology and achieving good grades are important components of your undergraduate career. But courses are also important in that they provide you with the opportunity to become acquainted with and form relationships with faculty.

Why meet faculty in terms of the graduate school application process? There are at least three compelling reasons. First, having a mentor to advise you in your growth as a future psychologist is invaluable. When you apply to graduate school, having a professor to guide you through the process is one of the biggest advantages you can have. Second, you will eventually need faculty to write letters of recommendation on your behalf. Whether you are applying to graduate school or for employment, everyone wants a few references regarding your performance and responsibility. Occasionally faculty members are asked to write a letter for a pupil who has taken a lecture course with 100 or more students — the professor may not even know the student until the time the student requests a letter! It makes a huge difference if you have spent some office hours or time after class with a faculty member and he or she knows you more personally. And third, once you get to know professors, you may have the opportunity to work for them on a research project or as part of clinical activities. You will be working closely with your major professor in graduate school, and you might as well begin as soon as possible as a colleague-in-training.

All this is to say that, beyond completing and excelling in your undergraduate courses expected by graduate schools, simultaneously consider the coursework as an unparalleled opportunity to help cultivate a warm and working relationship with your professor-mentor.

Most Commonly Required Courses:

• Statistics
• Research Methods/Experimental Design
• Abnormal
• Personality
• Developmental
• Testing
• Learning
• Lab course
• Physiological
• History and Systems
• Social
• Cognitive
• Sensation and Perception

Graduate School Entry Exams… When Should I Take Them?

We strongly recommend that students planning to apply to graduate programs during their senior year of college take their graduate school entry exams NO LATER than the SPRING of the JUNIOR YEAR. Not sure when these exams are held? Here are some helpful dates and resource sites. In most cases, you can register for the tests online. HINT: Be sure to sign up EARLY to avoid fees and ensure that your preferred testing site is available!

GRE: The Graduate Record Exam is appropriate for students applying to programs in the arts & sciences (psychology, literature, social work, etc.) You can register for the GRE via their website at http://www.gre.org

MCAT: The Medical College Admissions Test is for students applying for careers in medicine. Get more information at http://www.aamc.org/stuapps/admiss/mcat/

LSAT: The Law School Admission Test is for students applying toward training in the law. Visit http://www.lsac.org/ for more information.
 

Take Advantage of the Career Center!

How many of you have braved the walk to the North Decatur building to check out Career Center resources? This Spring, your undergraduate assistant, Tamara, went to the Career Center and made an appointment to find out why so many of you are reluctant to make the trip. What did I find out? There ARE resources which can help you, but you’ll have to do some research on your own to find them. If you’re looking for assistance in the areas listed below, it will be well worth your while to go the distance.

Dossier service: If you’re applying for jobs after graduation or sending out letters of recommendation to graduate schools, this option can really save you time. A dossier is essentially a packet of materials which reflect your achievements, and may include confidential recommendations, resumes, published articles, and any other materials which you intend to send out repeatedly. Instead of having to fill out forms for each school or job you’re applying to, wouldn’t it be nice to have the Career Center bundle everything up for you and send it off?

Internships: In addition to an extensive database including internships sponsored by other schools across the country, the Career Center has books and listings of organizations looking for volunteers (both paid and unpaid). ASK someone to point you to these resources.

Career Placement: The Career Center sponsors a Career Fair each semester, with companies recruiting upcoming and recent Emory grads on campus. Listings of the companies involved in this event are available at the Career Center, or in the Undergraduate Resource Center in Room 201. Some will have resume drops in advance of the fair; some will interview on site. If you want to participate, be sure to check out the policies for the companies in which you’re interested in advance.

Individual Career Counseling: Just not sure what you want to do with your life? Make an appointment to see one of the Career Center counselors. They will help you to assess your skills and goals, and can administer personality profile tests to help you identify areas of significant strengths. There is even a computer program which can help you hone in on your talents. When you’re done the tests, a career counselor will discuss your options with you and guide you to correct resources for developing those abilities.

Pre-Med or Pre-Law? The Career Center has a special counselor dedicated strictly to pre-med and -law issues. Advisement sessions for these careers are held several times a semester to keep you on track. In addition, the Career Center has an extensive library of program information and study guides for admission to both types of programs.

Planning to take the GRE, MAT, MCAT, or LSAT? Study guides are available in the Career Center, as well as forms for registering for each of the test administration dates.

How Do I Know if I’ll Like What I Think I Want to Do? The Career Center maintains a database web page called the Alumni Connection. You can access hundreds of individuals who began at Emory as Psychology majors, and find out what it’s like to be what they are. Counselors, researchers, statisticians, physicians, lawyers, graduate students, human resource managers, corporate leaders, financial wizards, social workers... no matter what you think you might like to do, the Network should have someone to talk to who is already doing it. These mentors can guide you in pursuing your goals, and tell you what it’ll be like once you get there. The Undergraduate Resource Center also maintains a bank of Psychology grads who are willing to mentor our undergraduate students.

Discussion and Interest Groups: The Career Center has special study sessions and discussion groups for students interested in a wide array of topics. You may check the postings on their bulletin board, and sign up for those that interest you. The groups are facilitated by Career Center personnel who are trained in specific issues. In most cases, there is no charge for the sessions. It’s a great way to get some guidance in a small, private setting, and to talk with other students who share your goals and concerns.

Special Events: Yes, the Career Center sponsors them... often! Check their board for upcoming events.

Graduate School Application Checklist... Start Now!

If you are planning to apply to a graduate program of study in Psychology, you should be certain to prepare very early. The following guideline, adapted from GETTING IN: A Step-by-Step Plan for Gaining Admission to Graduate School in Psychology, will help you to approach the graduate school application process in the most effective manner.

Not sure whether graduate study in Psychology is right for you? Stop by Room 202 to see Tamara for an appointment to use the Undergraduate Resource Center. From books to career guides to application materials, we have everything you will need to start your search for a program that suits your interests.

JUNIOR YEAR

• Start reading about careers in psychology. Become acquainted with the APA’s publication, Graduate Study in Psychology. Make note of any programs that appeal to you. The Undergraduate Resource Center has all the materials you will need to begin this search.
• Attend colloquia and other events sponsored by your psychology department. Find out about state, regional, and national psychology conferences. Attend those that interest you if you are able. Information about these events will be posted on the Undergraduate Bulletin Board and throughout the building.
• Discuss your interests with faculty. Meet with your advisor or Dr. Strock to determine the electives in Math, Science, Computer Science, Psychology, and other areas that might be an asset in applying to graduate school. (See "Which Course, Which Course," this issue, for further detail on choosing electives).
• Find out faculty research interests (listed in the back of your Undergraduate Handbook), read their articles, and get acquainted with those whose research interests you. Take a class with these professors.
• Volunteer to assist faculty in their research, or investigate other field-related experiences. Assisting with research is an invaluable way to gain research experience, and also to allow professors to get to know you. Having a working relationship with a faculty member will also help in requesting recommendation letters.
• Find out if you are qualified to join Psi Chi, and become a member if eligible.
• Send away for bulletins for the GREs or MAT. Use study guides or attend a course to prepare for these exams. Take practice exams to estimate what your score may be. (NOTE: Many of these materials are now available on-line. See related article, page 2).

SUMMER BEFORE SENIOR YEAR

• Fill out an Undergraduate Psychology Major flowchart to assess what requirements you have fulfilled, and which ones remain to be completed. Check with the College Office to assess your status of completion towards Distribution Requirements and Writing Requirements.
• Find out what programs interest you by studying Graduate Study in Psychology or other guides available in the Undergraduate Resource Center or your local library. Compile a preliminary list of programs that offer the area of concentration, degree, and training model that appeal to you.
• Contact your list of programs for additional information on their programs and financial aid. Ask for an application packet. Study this information carefully.
• After reviewing this information, compile a list of programs to which you will apply. If you can afford it and it seems worthwhile, visit the campuses of programs that interest you or about which you have the most questions.
• Call the financial aid offices of the schools to which you intend to apply. Ask for an information packet about the aid available to graduate students, as well as any forms you will need to complete to be considered for financial aid. Ask if there is anyone else to whom you should speak regarding other potential sources of aid.
• Go to the Career Center or library to research sources of financial aid in addition to the ones offered by the Universities to which you are applying.
• Plan and schedule your application strategy. Pay careful attention to application deadlines, particularly with regard to financial aid, which often has earlier deadlines than admissions.
• Calculate application fees and make sure you have enough money to cover them. Some schools will waive this fee if there is a financial hardship; check with individual schools to see if they have this policy. Begin planning how you will cover the expense of any preselection interviews which you may be required to attend.

 SENIOR YEAR - September

• Apply in the first week of September to take the GRE’s in October and the next scheduled MAT (if required by the programs to which you are applying). Register for the GRE Subject test in Psychology if this is a requirement of any of the programs. Continue reviewing material for these exams until they are taken.
• Submit a request to the Registrar for a copy of your undergraduate transcript, which you will include in your packet for those faculty members whom you will ask to write letters of recommendation.
• Prepare a resume for the same purpose.
• Begin to determine which faculty members you will ask to write letters of recommendation.
• Begin thinking about the various essay questions and/or personal statement required by the various programs. Allow time for your ideas to germinate.

 SENIOR YEAR - October

• Take the GRE’s and MAT (if needed); request that scores be sent to all schools to which you will apply.
• Begin contacting all individuals from whom you will request letters of recommendation.
• Begin filling out financial aid and application forms.
• Write first drafts of your essays and personal statement; have others critique these and offer suggestions.

 SENIOR YEAR - November

• Request at the Registrar’s office that your undergraduate transcript be sent to all of the institutions to which you are applying. Make sure that your transcripts will be sent by your earliest application deadline.
• Finalize financial aid forms.
• Get feedback and write final drafts of your essays and personal statement.
• Contact individuals who have agreed to write you letters of recommendation. Be certain to provide them with a packet including all necessary forms and envelopes for each school, as well as a copy of your resume and transcript. Envelopes should be stamped, addressed, and return-addressed, and should be neatly attached to the proper correspondence for each school.

SENIOR YEAR - December

• Carefully prepare each application for mailing. Be sure to photocopy each application in its entirety. Consider sending applications registered mail if you can afford it.

 SENIOR YEAR - January/February

• Begin to prepare for possible preselection interviews.
• Contact professors whom you have asked to submit letters of recommendation. Confirm that they were sent and thank those who sent them.
• Follow up with schools to confirm that your completed applications were received.
• Attend any preselection interviews to which you were invited.

 SENIOR YEAR - March

• Accept or decline any offers from the schools to which you applied.
• If you are not accepted to any of the programs of your choice, consider other options towards reapplication the following year.

 SENIOR YEAR - April

• Finalize financial arrangements for attending graduate school.
• Call or write the people who wrote your letters of recommendation and inform them of the outcome.
• Celebrate (or regroup).

 
REMEMBER: It often takes students more than one attempt in order to gain admittance. If you have determined that graduate study in Psychology is your goal and have the minimum qualifications to make this a realistic pursuit, DON’T GIVE UP. See Tamara for alternative ideas to bolster your application before re-applying.

Applying to Graduate School: Maximizing Your Chances for Success

Carla Strassle, University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

This article originally appeared in Eye on Psi Chi, Fall 1998. Reprinted by permission.

 The best preparation that you can do comes long before it is time to actually apply.

THE SOONER THE BETTER

• Excel in your coursework, get to know your professors (good letters of recommendation are a must!), and above all, research, research, research.
• Start looking at schools early so you can narrow your choices. Many schools even have web sites that you can access.

 NARROWING DOWN

• Look for specific faculty members with whom you would like to work. If no one has the same research interests as you, you are probably not right for that program.
• Call or visit before interview day. Really get to know your top choices.
• Know what you’re getting into: What kind of program is it (research oriented, etc.)? What is expected of you?

 APPLYING

• Make your letter of intent specific (e.g., make sure it is clear what area of research interests you and why, and what some of the research questions you would like to pursue in that area are).
• Give your professors plenty of time [to complete your letters of recommendation — don‘t wait til the last minute to make your request!], let them read your letters of intent, and help with any editing that may need to be done.
• Make sure you submit the specific information that each particular school requests; all applications are not created equal.

 THE INTERVIEW

• Have specific questions prepared for the interview (e.g., things you want to ask them about their program).
• Talk to current students in the program.
• Don’t assume that everyone you talk to during the interview has thoroughly read your application. Make sure they know why you would be an asset to their program, but don’t be overbearing.
• Talk to the professors; try to get a feeling for how the faculty members get along. If your major professor is at war with another professor, you can get stuck in the middle. Ask the professors, then ask the students, to make sure facts are accurately presented!

IF PROBLEMS ARISE

• Be persistent, but always polite.
• Always be nice to the secretaries; they don’t make the decision but they do take the messages!

 GETTING ACCEPTED

• If you have the luxury of being accepted at more than one place, weigh your options carefully.
• Congratulate yourself, you have definitely earned it.

It Takes More Than Good Grades: Straight Talk About How to Get Strong Letters of Recommendation from Faculty

by David W. Wilson, Ph.D., Culver-Stockton College

This article originally appeared in Eye on Psi Chi, Winter 1998. Reprinted by permission.

As a faculty member in a Psychology department, I write numerous letters of recommendation every year for students seeking jobs and graduate school acceptances. I take my task very seriously as I know how important such letters are for a student’s chances of success. For example, a perusal of Graduate Study in Psychology (American Psychological Association, 1996) shows that most graduate programs in our field rate letters of recommendation as "high" in importance. Furthermore, research by psychologist Patricia Keith-Spiegel (1991) revealed that faculty involved in graduate admission selections were particularly impressed by letters of recommendation from faculty mentors with whom a student had worked closely.

Clearly, it is in your best interest, as a student, to get the strongest letters of recommendation possible. But how can you be assured of getting decisive, enthusiastic letters? For starters, do not be misled into thinking that all you have to do is go to your classes and make good grades. For me to be an informative, effective letter writer for you, I need to know more about you than the fact that you have a high grade point average (GPA) or that you made A’s in all of my classes. Good grades are an important start but, by themselves, are not enough. Many students have a high GPA — and many students, of course, even have a perfect 4.0! But not all of these students get strong letters of recommendation. Those who do not get such letters have usually failed to distinguish themselves through active involvement in their major, or, if they have been involved, have failed to sufficiently demonstrate appropriate abilities, attitudes, and work habits both in and out of the classroom.
 
Laying the Foundation for a Strong Letter of Recommendation
If I am to write an effective letter or recommendation for your, I need to be able to discuss at length (or at least several pages) specific examples and demonstrations of your abilities, potential, and personal qualities. In other words, I need to describe concrete evidence that will hopefully set you apart from your peers and help establish that you do, indeed, have the characteristics that make you an optimal job or graduate school candidate.

My Unsolicited Advice
It should be evident that the burden is on you, the student. No amount of expertise or experience I have in writing letters of reference will help unless you first provide a substantive, solid foundation for a strong letter. Over the course of your education (don’t start when you are a senior!), you need to be taking a number of positive steps that will reflect well on your abilities, work habits, attitudes, and commitment to the field. And you need to realize that everything you do — in and out of the classroom — reflects the kind of person you are and provides the substance of some future letter of recommendation. You would be wise to focus on the "big picture" and not just on grades. So what exactly should you do and not do? Here are my suggestions:

• Have a positive attitude about school, classes, psychology, and learning in general. Be interested and curious about issues and questions in the field. Always show a desire for self-improvement and personal growth. Always be prepared. Make hard work your trademark by doing the very best job you possibly can in all that you do. And do not be a complainer who views everything in life as unfair, too difficult, or irrelevant. The classroom itself is a good place to start in your display of a positive attitude. The advice offered here means that you should always attend class, be attentive, have readings and other assignments completed on time, treat all assignments as important and as new opportunities to expand your knowledge and skills, do what is required and then some, seek feedback on how to improve your performance, and be an active participant who asks thoughtful questions and contributes constructively to class discussions. Along the way, avoid any comments that might even remotely be interpreted as whining! Your attitude is critical, and, whatever it is, spills over into your other activities outside the classroom.
• Get involved in your major. Do more than take classes. Be seen around the department. Work with faculty on their research projects. Do internships and volunteer work in the community. Actively participate in Psychology Club or Psi Chi activities — do not be an invisible member on the roster. Take advantage of any opportunities or invitations to serve as a departmental or faculty assistant (e.g., tutor, teaching assistant, or research assistant). In my own department, we employ a number of students in a variety of capacities such as research assistant or assessment coordinator. Other students serve on a volunteer basis. Several students, for example, have been involved in setting up our computerized psychology lab or helping create our department’s World Wide Web page.
• Demonstrate your capacity for independence and creativity by conducting your own research project under a faculty member’s supervision. Present your work at a professional research conference, and, in the process, provide evidence of your analytical ability as well as your writing and public speaking skills.
• Exhibit your leadership skills. Run for office in Psi Chi or other student organizations.
• Take an interest in the profession of psychology by joining the American Psychological Association (APA) or the American Psychological Society (APS) as a student affiliate. When opportunities arise, attend professional meetings and research conferences. Every spring semester, a number of psychology students at my college attend a regional undergraduate psychology research conference. Many of those students present papers, while others attend as observers (and hopeful future presenters!).
• Be dependable. Show up for appointments and events on time. Meet deadlines and complete tasks as they were assigned. Exemplify trustworthiness by following through on your promises and commitments.
• Be a self-starter. If you know what needs to be done, do it. Be the kind of person who does things without always having to be told or asked to do them. If you do not know what you are to do next, ask!
• Take responsibility for your own actions. Refrain from making excuses or blaming others for your problems. If you make a mistake, admit it, accept the consequences, and strive to improve. Do not expect others to do for you what you should do yourself.
• Be self-confident but modest. Boasting, self-promotion, and a know-it-all attitude will only work against you. If you are to succeed in a job or in graduate school, you must be able to accept and respond constructively to suggestions, criticism, evaluative feedback, and supervision. Prepare yourself by practicing these constructive reactions now.
• Be polished and professional in all that you do. Again, remember that everything you do reflects back on you and suggests what kind of person you are — whether you are a sloppy person, a person who doesn’t care, or a person who is organized, careful, and conscientious. Always put your best foot forward, whether writing a term paper, carrying out an internship, or chairing a Psi Chi meeting.
• Be genuine. Phoniness and deception will be detected.
• Be a model of perseverance! When a task gets difficult or you face unexpected obstacles, keep working hard.
• Prove that you can work effectively with others. Be a team player. Be fair with others. Do your fair share of the work. Show respect for others. Be helpful and supportive of others.
• Display initiative and motivation by doing more than is expected of you. "Go the extra mile" in your pursuit of knowledge. Be willing to take difficult, challenging courses; avoid taking the easy, undemanding path to a high GPA. Express a willingness to do more than master the content of psychology; seek to expand your skills in the supportive areas of writing, speaking, mathematics, statistics, and computing. Spend time in the library, find some topics that capture your interest, keep up with the latest relevant literature in psychological journals, and perhaps even subscribe to journals through your student affiliate membership in APA or APS. Finally, if you are eligible to participate in your college’s honors program, do it. Take the challenge and gain the valuable experiences inherent in such a program’s classes and projects. In most honors programs, for example, the culminating experience is some type of research project. This is one more excellent opportunity to demonstrate your creativity, analytical skills, perseverance, independence, and communication skills.

The Perspective of Employers and Graduate Programs and the Implications for You
The factors I have emphasized here do matter to prospective employers and graduate programs. Employers and graduate faculty are interested in students who have intellectual ability, creativity, high motivation, self-control and self-discipline, leadership skills, good work habits, the ability to accept supervision, the ability to complete a task, the ability to relate well to others, strong communication skills, and the capacity to work effectively whether independently or as a team member. In short, employers and graduate programs want students with the demonstrated potential to be successful and to make significant contributions to their profession.

If faculty letter writers are to address such matters relating to abilities, attitudes, and other personal qualities, they need supportive, concrete evidence from both in and beyond the classroom. If you sit passively in your classes, don’t get involved in the major, don’t interact with faculty in significant ways, and don’t display appropriate abilities, attitudes, and work habits, it will be very difficult for those faculty members to write strong letters of recommendation for you. And this will be the case even if you truly are a very intelligent person with good grades, strong test scores (e.g., on the Graduate Record Examination), and lots of potential.

Prospective employers and graduate school admissions committees do not need letters of recommendation to inform them about grades and test scores. They do need such letters to find out about your other qualities. And, as I have indicated, such qualities are, in fact, very important in their evaluation of you. So if you have not yet taken the step of getting involved in your major and getting better acquainted with your faculty, take some kind of action today. Knock on a professor’s door, inquire about opportunities to get involved, volunteer for something, express an interest in research, sign up to do an internship, attend a research conference with other students and faculty, or get actively involved in Psi Chi activities. And if you need to improve your attitudes, work habits, and commitment to the field, do that. But whatever you do, start now. Don’t leave me, the letter writer, with only a few fond memories of you from one or two of my classes and a few generalities about you that I have heard from others. Remember that if I am to comment on your potential, I need evidence of that potential.

A note of caution is probably appropriate at this point: you should not consider my suggestions as a series of hoops that you must go through just to impress your faculty so that they will write strong letters for you. Such a view misses the point. Instead, you should realize that heeding the suggestions makes sense precisely because you need to do these things to be successful. The best predictor of future performance is current and past performance. Not surprisingly, then, prospective employers and graduate programs who are keenly interested in your future potential very much want to know what kind of student and worker you are now and have been in the past.

What To Do When It’s Time to Ask for a Letter: An Important Addendum
The overall strategy I have described for getting strong letters of reference needs a few additional steps beyond the laying of the foundation. When it is time to ask me for a letter of recommendation, be sure to ask me if I can write a strong letter for you. After all, a weak letter may very well do more harm than good. If I cannot write a strong letter, I will tell you so. If that happens, you should find faculty who can write such a letter for you. But let’s assume that I am able to write an enthusiastic letter because you have done all the right things to justify my doing so. Your strategy at that point should be to affirm, document, and help me remember all those things. Furthermore, you should realize that even if I know you well, I may not know about everything that is germane to your job or graduate school applications. So when you ask me to write a letter for you, provide me with a copy of your vita. On that vita, be sure to include such items as honors and awards, research experience (list research activities as well as products of research such as conference papers and published articles on which you were an author or co-author), teaching experience (e.g., tutor or course proctor), other relevant work experience (e.g., student assistant for the psychology department or summer employment at a community mental health center), internships, volunteer activities, special skills (e.g., computing and statistics), and membership in professional organizations (e.g., Psi Chi, APA or APS). Also provide me with a photocopy of your current transcript, your GRE results, samples of your writing, a listing of research conferences or other professional meetings you have attended, an assessment of your strengths and weaknesses, and a detailed statement of your career goals and interests. If you are applying to graduate school, provide me with a copy of your application essay (personal statement) written for that application. And one final note: give me adequate time to get your letter prepared before the application deadline! In fact, at the time you ask me if I am willing to write a letter for you, also ask me how much preparation time I need prior to any given deadline.

A Concluding Comment
I want to write the very best letter of recommendation for you that I can. If you follow the advice offered in this article, it should greatly increase the probability of that happening and, in turn, increase your chances of getting the job or graduate school acceptance you are seeking. An effective letter of reference is most certainly the end product of a faculty member-student partnership. But it all begins with and hinges upon what you, the student, do and provide. Think optimistically and take charge!

The "Personal" Side of Graduate School Personal Statements

by Randall E. Osborne, Ph.D., Indiana University East

Originally published in Eye On Psi Chi, Fall 1996 edition. Reprinted by permission.

Many students anticipating graduate school spend a significant number of hours preparing for the Graduate Record Examination. They also spend a vast amount of time preparing applications and developing their resumes. It is somewhat paradoxical, then, that so many of these same students neglect to give the same degree of attention to the personal statements most graduate programs require. Since these statements are listed by most graduate programs as of medium to high importance in reaching admittance decisions, it would behoove graduate school-bound students to put more emphasis in their writing.

I asked a representative from the Graduate Admissions Committee at a major research-oriented graduate program what he felt was the primary weakness in personal statements written by students. He did not even hesitate a second to respond. "Most students," he suggested, "forget that we call them ‘personal statements' for a reason. We do not simply want a written version of the application or resume. When I have finished reading a personal statement I want to know the person. If more students considered the personal statement to be their one chance to sell themselves in a pseudointerview, and wrote their personal statements with that in mind, more of them would get accepted."

Reflect on the significance of those statements. Most personal statements are ineffective because the student fails to be 'personal.’ The level of personal information that is provided needs to be extensive enough for the committee to feel confident with the kind of person you are but not reveal so much that it violates norms about personal disclosure. The student, therefore, should spend a significant amount of time writing, rewriting, and rethinking the personal statement. As you consider the level and type of information to put into your personal statement, it would be wise to consider the following issues.

What yardstick do you use to determine if your personal statement has struck an appropriate balance of personal details? If the personal statement reads more like a resume than a letter, it is too impersonal. On the other hand, if it reads more like a "this is my tragic life" excerpt, it is probably too personal. Rather than trying to develop a formula for level of personal detail, however, you should ask yourself a few fundamental questions.

Do the personal details I have included in the statement seem relevant to my ability to be a successful graduate student? If the answer to this question is no, you may want to strongly consider eliminating those details.

Do the personal details I reveal demonstrate characteristics of my "self" that reflect maturity, adaptability, and motivation? These are buzzwords that many graduate programs consider to be important qualities in incoming students.

Do the personal details convey a convincing portrayal of my abilities to succeed in this school's graduate program? If you are applying for a clinical psychology program, for example, your experience with a family member who was raped may be significantly more telling than your experiences as a lifeguard.

A second major issue to consider involves whether any of the personal details revealed should reflect weaknesses or mistakes you have made. In some fashion you want to put your best foot forward in these statements. But many of the events that have the most impact on whom we become are the negative ones. To the extent that we can learn from those negative events and become a stronger person because of them, that may reflect well on us. Again, the pivotal word is caution. If the event seems relevant to the skills necessary for that graduate program, you should consider including it.

Relevance becomes the filter through which you process your personal statement. As long as the events seem relevant to the program for which you are applying, they should probably be included. If the events you mention illustrate, for example, that you are the kind of person who can handle adversity and reach successful resolutions, that bodes well for you as a graduate student. If, however, it seems that you are a magnet for disaster, that won't make the committee too optimistic about your ability to adapt successfully to graduate school.

One of my students who successfully gained admittance to several Ph.D. programs started her statement by discussing the identity crisis she went through when her husband died. The picture she painted of this reformulating of her "self' was both convincing and moving. She came across as an individual who can ask herself hard questions, reflect on possible answers, and develop and successfully carry out a serious plan of action.

Another student, however, wanted to convey in her statement the breadth of her interests in psychology. She reflected on experiences that made a variety of areas in psychology fascinating to her. When she did not hear from the last program to which she had applied, I called them. They stated that she was on the short list, but they were unsure about offering her acceptance because she seemed to be interested in everything. This created doubts in their minds that she "truly" wanted to be in and would be happy with a clinical psychology program. After a telephone interview with this student, she was offered -acceptance and a fellowship.

A final issue to consider involves "understatements.' Many students are hesitant to make statements about their strengths. In some ways this humility is endearing. At the same time, however, if you don't say it, who will? You can't be sure what your referees will say about your assets. If what you are skilled in is relevant to their program, tell them. Any proof you have about your abilities should be included. If you were hand-picked by a faculty member to become a research assistant, mention that. Many students make statements like, "I was lucky enough to be asked to work on a research project with Professor Smith." Did luck really have anything to do with your being asked? Although you may "feel" lucky for having been asked, it was undoubtedly Professor Smith's perceptions of your abilities that motivated her to ask.

Other students make statements about working while going to school. If you worked 40 hours per week, carried an average course load of 15 credit hours, and still managed to volunteer for the suicide hot line, that is impressive. So make the statement speak as "loudly" as possible. Don't say, "Hey, look at me, aren't I amazing?" but do state the simple facts. A student who can work a full-time job, successfully complete an undergraduate program, and still contribute to the community would seem to be a good candidate for graduate school. The point being made is that understatements can be just as damaging as overstatements. Don't "underwhelm" your reader.

Don’t exaggerate, your accomplishments, but do not minimize them either. If this committee is going to get an accurate picture of the kind of person you are, and from this they will be trying to predict what kind of a graduate student you will be, give them the facts they need to do so.

When all is said and done, the committee reading the personal statement wants to be able to make a competent decision about your ability to complete their graduate program successfully. They are motivated to bring in students who wilt be successful. The experiences, awards, tragedies, etc. that you have had are the information they need to make that judgment. Don't exaggerate your accomplishments, but do not minimize them either. If you feel something is especially relevant for the committee's understanding of you as a person, point that out to them. if you feel there is something within your record to which they should give less credence, you might even consider pointing this out.

Another student recently was accepted into a master's program with a very low GPA and a very average performance on the GRE. I think the primary reason was his ability to portray convincingly in the statement that he started his education off on the wrong foot. He deftly drew the committee's attention to his work within the major, illustrated the vast improvement in his performance over the last two years, and ended with statements about feeling that he had hit his stride and was ready to hit the ground running in graduate school. The proof is in the acceptance.

Informational Interviewing: What’s It All About?

Interested in a profession but don’t know exactly what it’s about? Wondering what kind of education you need for the career of your choice? Having trouble finding information about your field of interest? Consider doing some informational interviewing! Informational interviewing involves making contact with professionals already established in your field of interest, and arranging a time to meet with them in person or conduct a phone interview. This process allows you to gather information about your career of choice, while also practicing your interviewing skills! An informational interview differs from a job interview in that YOU ask the questions.

How should you go about setting up an informational interview? First, identify people who are currently employed in professions which interest you. Then, call to schedule a 15-20 minute appointment with each person to discuss their position. Be direct in your inquiry; explain that you have done some research on their profession, and would like a few minutes of their time to ask questions about what they do.

What kinds of information can you gather? You might like to find out about a particular type of business or service: Who do they serve? What products or services are provided? Who are the competitors? What types of positions are available? What are the qualifications for entry-level and experienced positions? What duties and responsibilities are performed? What are some examples of problems and challenges in the field? What is a typical day like? How does the compensation compare to education and ability level? What are the opportunities for advancement? What opportunities exist for advanced training? Is there a tuition reimbursement plan? What suggestions would they make for an individual wishing to enter this field of employment? What other companies might employ individuals to perform this type of work? Can they refer you to someone else for more information?

When you approach professionals in your field of interest from a research point of view and not as if you want a job, they will often be happy to talk with you. If one person doesn’t have time, ask to be referred to another professional in the field. Not only will you come away with information about the profession, but you’ll also have established some contacts in the field of your choice!

How Do I Maximize My Chances of Getting a Good Job with an Undergraduate Psychology Degree?

by Betsy Levonian Morgan and Ann J. Korschgen, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse

This article originally appeared in Eye on Psi Chi, Fall 1998. Reprinted by permission.

There is much you can do while you are in college that will enhance your career options. In fact, the actions you take while in college determine the type of job you will obtain later. You will want to start off with a job that begins to build your career, and we will discuss how you can maximize the chances of making this happen.

What do I need to be doing now about my future employment?
First things, first. Employers believe that your past performance predicts your future behavior, and many are making hiring decisions based on that assumption. In fact, to learn about your past behavior, more and more employers are using an interview technique called "behavior-based interviewing" in which they ask you to recall behaviors you have exhibited in the past. Examples of these behaviors could involve how you solved a specific problem working with a group of people, how you provided a service to someone in need, or when you demonstrated leadership in a work situation. Employers are interested in knowing about your "track record," which means that you should be building a history to carry with you into the future. But how? Building a history is not as hard as you think, especially when you understand what you need to do. And as you start taking the necessary steps, you will discover that enhancing your "marketability" (which means your ability to sell yourself as a candidate to employers) also enhances your academic journey as well.

So why should I care about my "marketability"?
It can make a big difference in whether you end up in a job that is a career stepping-stone or a career roadblock. Have you ever seen someone in a job they hated? We have. They have been former students who have come back to us saying they had been too busy as college students to optimize their opportunities. We don’t want the same to happen to you, and it doesn’t have to! You can do things now that will lead you to work that will be meaningful and rewarding for you.

What are some steps to optimize my opportunities?
These steps will take some effort, but the payoff is well worth it. (Take them in the order that makes most sense for you.)

1. Get to know your faculty. Their support and their recommendations to employers or to graduate schools will make an important difference for you. To get to know your instructors, drop by and ask them questions about class or provide them with comments about the class discussions. Talk with them about the field of psychology and their own career paths. Share with them your concerns about your career plans. Ask faculty members to guide you through an independent study or an internship. You might want to assist them with special projects or research. Faculty have a lot of wisdom to share and they may also have insights that assist you with your choices. Finally, they will be asked to recommend you for work or for graduate study. You want them to know you well and be aware of your skills and abilities so they can speak with enthusiasm about you.

2. Take course work that supports your plans. Take courses that will enhance your knowledge and skills in your areas of interest. Don’t assume the psychology curriculum will have all that you need to ensure your marketability. While psychology courses will be a great foundation upon which to add courses to deepen your knowledge base or skills, these additional courses also signal your specific skills and interests to employers. For example, if you are interested in working with delinquents, you may want to take courses in sociology related to criminology or in political science related to law.

3. Get to know and use resources that can assist you. On most college campuses services exist that can really help you. Often the career services office has staff and computerized materials that assist you in thinking through your options and deciding on your focus. They also frequently coordinate an internship program. Career service offices can help you identify your areas of interest and decide upon special courses you could take to help you explore these areas more deeply and to enhance your marketability. They also can often provide you with the names of alumni who are willing to talk with you about their careers, information about job opportunities in psychology, leads on job opportunities, and often information on internship options.

4. Participate in at least one internship experience if not more. Internships provide you an opportunity to gain relevant work experiences while you are a student. Often internships are offered for academic credit and are carefully monitored to ensure you receive adequate orientation, training, supervision, and evaluation. Frequently, there is flexibility in terms of when you can participate in an internship experience so that you can select the semester or summer and hours that are best for you. Internships enable you to gain relevant work experience before you graduate, they provide you with employers who are often willing to give you strong recommendations, and they enable you to think through your career options and learn about the atmosphere of a work environment. Sometimes internships provide you the chance to work in a new city, state, or country. Overall, they enhance your marketability. We know of many employers who will not even consider a recent graduate for employment unless she or he has had an internship while they were an undergraduate. A national study conducted in 1996 by the National Association of Colleges and Employers found that many employers consider work or internship experience a significant factor in determining whether to consider a candidate for an interview.

5. Volunteer some of your time and talent to campus or community organizations. You will not only make a difference for others by so doing, you also show others that you can be a good citizen in the community in which you live. Many employers of psychology majors especially value these qualities. In addition, you can often gain important skills, such as learning how to lead a meeting, plan an event, or deal with a difficult person, through volunteer work. If you can make an effort to be involved in campus or community projects, it sends a message about the kind of person you are. It enables you to help others, to meet people, to develop your skills, and to enhance your marketability. Employers, as we have said earlier, like to know that you have a successful history. Contributing to the community is a good way to help build that history.

What else should I consider?
Some additional and important points that can help you increase your chances of finding work that is satisfying to you include the following:

1. Build your communication skills. Employers rank oral communication and interpersonal skills as very important in the people they hire. Being able to talk with people and to get along with them not only helps in a work setting, but in most everything that you do. Seek feedback from others about how to develop these skills. And remember that gaining these skills is not a "spectator sport." You will need practice. We have seen more people get fired from their jobs because of problems with interpersonal relations than because of lack of technical skills.

2. Participate in extracurricular activities. Being involved in extracurricular activities such as your Psi Chi chapter, professional organizations, student government, athletics, or clubs signals to an employer that you are a well-rounded person. These activities might also provide specific skills gained through organizing events or working with people who have special needs. As with many of your experiences, one of the key things is how well you are able to talk about and convey the implications of your experiences.

3. Keep an open mind about your possibilities. One way to enhance your career opportunities is to be flexible about the kinds of work you may see as acceptable or "psychological." Also, keep an open mind regarding your geographic destination. Remember that larger urban areas will offer more numerous and varied opportunities than might be found in smaller communities.

4. Develop an attitude. A positive one. Survey after survey indicate that employers look for and reward positive attitudes. Employers are especially interested in your enthusiasm toward their organization and the work they offer. They prefer a "what can I do for you?" message to a "what can you do for me?" Along those lines, employers hire people who are actively engaged in looking for work rather than those who are waiting for something to "come to them."

5. Be savvy about your job search. You greatly enhance your chances of finding a terrific job by conducting a terrific job search.

Overall, after reading this, you should feel confident that you will be able to get a job. More importantly, you should feel ready to start planning strategies to make yourself more marketable so that you can end up in the career you really want. Keep in mind that each experience you have becomes a part of your total marketability. Don’t wait until your senior year to try to understand how it all fits together, but rather reflect on your experiences and skills throughout your college career.